(First Post Here):
I purchased a pair of leg restraints from an antique dealer in Ohio earlier this year.
I was told they were real and from the 1820 - 1850 era. They also were to have come from either Virginia or Georgia. (I'm aware there are a bunch of fakes out there)
I have shown them to two different curators at two different museums.
Both curators said there was nothing about these shackles to indicate they were not real. They said they didn't have the usual fake give-aways, like modern welding and grind marks.
I would like to positively I.D. these. Are there experts in old metallurgy that could analyze a small sample and identify the authenticity of the metal used?
Or are there experts who could look these over and tell if they are fakes?
Any comments on these?
Hi CDW2007:
I've been collecting antique leg irons and related restraints for quite a while, and Dennis is correct about the wrought iron vs. modern steel distinction. That's the easiest and quickest way to spot the fakes, once you know what true wrought iron is.
The terminology can get confusing, since the same words have been used in different contexts at different times over the years. Basically, there are three grades of iron: (1) low carbon content, around 0.5% or less, (2) medium carbon content, around 1% to 1.5%, and (3) high carbon content, 2% or more. Until the late 19th century, #1 was called iron, and is quite malleable. #2 was called steel, and was much harder, although less malleable. #3 didn't have a specific name (other than perhaps crap) since it was brittle, not malleable, and was virtually useless, other than for ballast.
From ancient times until 1800, iron was smelted using charcoal as the fuel to heat the iron ore and burn off the impurities. However, the fire was not hot enough to melt the iron into a liquid; it only came up to a semi-molten plastic state. As the impurities were burned off, they left air pockets in the lump of iron, which was called a bloom. The result was somewhite like a loaf of bread, filled with air pockets. To get rid of these, the bloom was then wrought; that is, hammered. After it was flattened out, they'd fold it in half, hammer away some more, fold it in half again, hammer some more and so on.
The result was to create the two distinctive features of wrought iron. First, it has a texture, resulting from the flattened out air pockets. Second, it has a grain (like wood) resulting from the repeated folding and flattening.
Around 1800, starting in England, iron began to be smelted using the puddling process, which used coke as the fuel source. With the hotter fire produced by coke, the iron ore was brought to a thick, liquid state and then stirred to collect the refined iron into a mass called a puddle. However, the iron still had air pockets in it due to the stirring, like making meringue by beating egg whites. So, they still had to "wrought" the iron to get rid of those. In contrast to charcoal iron, puddled iron has a finer texture and grain (more like bamboo rather than wood).
By 1870 or so, iron was thereafter smelted using the Bessemer (blast furnace) or open hearth process by which the iron ore was brought to a full liquid stage and then poured into molds. And that's when the terminology got all screwed up.
Wrought iron actually describes a process for smelting iron; it has nothing to do with carbon content and hence the grade of iron. The genuine wrought iron items you see usually have a low carbon content simply because only the low carbon content variety of iron (#1) is malleable. However, beginning in the late 19th century, manufacturers began to call low carbon iron (#1) wrought iron, medium carbon iron (#2) steel and high carbon iron (#3) cast iron, which is truly nonsensical since all iron today starts out life by being melted and cast into molds. Today, #1 is often called mild steel. However, there are no formal standards and manufacturers can call their products anything they want. For example, at home centers, you see "wrought iron" lawn furniture, which is a crock since it's actually cast iron with a high carbon content (#3).
Genuine wrought iron has some positive qualities that modern iron does not. Because of the grain it has, resulting from the folding and hammering, it has a springy quality and is much easier for a blacksmith to work than the modern stuff which has no similar grain; the modern stuff tends to crack when you bend it. For this reason, you'll see some late 19th/early 20th century iron objects marked "genuine wrought" or "warranted wrought" (such as British darby handcuffs). Hey, why mark it genuine or warranted unless there was a fake variety out there, namely the low carbon (#1) type made with the Bessemer process that does not have a grain since its poured into molds rather than repeatedly hammered and folded. And that's why true wrought iron disappeared; the labor and fuel to make it was significantly greater and it was much more expensive.
So, how do you tell if your shackles are wrought iron and hence presumably genuine? The spark test indicates the amount (number of sparks) and type (color of sparks) of elements other than iron that are present, usually carbon. If the sparks show modern alloy steel, then you know you've got a fake. However, the sparks from wrought iron and modern mild steel and the way they branch out can be so close (depending upon the relative carbon content) to be almost indistinguishable. Accordingly, the only way to tell is to actually look at the iron itself to see if it has the grain and texture unique to wrought iron.
Unfortunately, trying to describe that grain and texture in words is like trying to describe the color red to a blind person. The photo you posted is just not clear and detailed enough to see this feature. Yes, there is pitting of the metal, but that's probably due to rusting, and has no relation to the actual texture of the metal.
From your photo, the color of the patina suggests modern iron. Charcoal smelted wrought iron typically has an almost black patina, while puddled wrought iron has a dark brown patina. Your shackles are more medium/light brown, indicating modern iron; however, that may be the result of the lighting when the photo was taken
The fact your fetters do not have the chain connected to the locking shackle is not determinitive either. I've got several examples of both types, and the unconnected chain type makes it easier to operate the puzzle lock shackle.
On the locking shackle, look at how the lock tube is fastened to the collar. The collar is very narrow and it seems the tube is either pinned or pressure fitted and peened in place, which suggests modern manufacture. Typically, the collar is an inch or so wide and the tube is brazed into place. However, since all of these old fetters were hand made, some enterprising blacksmith may have used a different method.
From what I can see, the thing that shouts "fake" is the connecting chain. People today all too often do not appreciate that those old blacksmiths were highly skilled artisans. All they think about is somebody beating out a horseshoe with no tools other than a hammer and anvil. In fact, those old guys had a wide variety of tools (just like a cabinetmaker has more than a hammer and saw) and were quite adept in their use and were very practical people. Making chain links that are uniform in size is rather easy and fast, provided you have the correct tools and know the process. Drilling out two holes in a flat piece of iron would be much more time consuming. The guy has already made two chain links, so making a third would be a snap. But, having that rustic flat piece of iron in the middle makes them look crude and therefore an easier sell to a gullible buyer.
To me, the final straw is that there seem to be too many of these things (all with that flat piece of iron in the middle of the chain) floating around out there. Of the three or so I've actually been able to handle, every one was made of modern iron and not pre-20th century wrought iron. I've never seen a genuine set with a flat piece of iron instead of a chain link of some sort. And I have no recollection of how many I've seen on eBay over the years. Genuine antique fetters are very scarce and each set has unique qualities. There are just too many of this design out there for them to all be authentic.
